Microeconomics Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Microeconomics - Term Paper Example However, since the buying and selling is common to all participants of economy, therefore microeconomics plays an important role in determining the supply and demand of goods. As this factor is responsible for price fixation of goods and services, the change in supply vs. demand position can lead to change in price. As resources become limited, microeconomics tries to analyze the relationship between market conditions, product prices, as well as the market mechanism which establishes this relationship. Such mechanism has a great role to play in the allocation of resources, in such scenario. Therefore, microeconomics has a significant role in determining the conditions required for a perfect competition. It also studies the conditions which may have led to market failure, when results are not produced efficiently. However, microeconomics can only establish the theoretical conditions, while actually market behavior may be different, sometimes. Accordingly, studies in this field of econ omy would include decision making ability under uncertain market condition. It also includes the study of market, which may not follow any pattern. This term paper would discuss about the principles of microeconomics, along with its fundamentals, in the following pages. Principles of microeconomics As there is a great relationship between a household and economy; Greek ancestors have correctly named the manager of a household as ‘economy’. Looking at the wider scenario, the household is an economic entity within a larger society. The society must ensure the allocation of funds and jobs to different members, while managing the available limited resources. Therefore the decisions need to be taken, keeping in view certain fundamentals, which are considered as the principles of microeconomics, which help people in making their decisions. Supply and demand In economic terms, demand means willingness, need and ability to purchase certain goods or services. However, desire to purchase may meet the requirement of willingness, but same only cannot generate demand. The purchaser must be able to pay for the specific good or service. The payment method can vary, as sellers except cash, credit cards, deferred payment or lease payments, nowadays. The capacity to purchase the good determines the ability for generating the demand. Readiness to purchase the good, right now, comes after the above two requirements of demand have been met. Once the immediate purchase willingness is confirmed the demand gets generated. (beggs 1) Supply relates to the available quantity of a particular good or service at a point in time, in a particular location. Supply would primarily comprise of two elements. One is the quantity of goods produced by a firm, while other is the combined quantity of same goods produced and offered for sale by different firms, involved in manufacture and trading of that particular item. However, total availability of such goods in market refers to the su pply of the same. Supply would relate with the profit to be generated by offering such goods for sale. As companies prefer to sell their products at maximum profit level, this would determine the quantity and quality of goods that the firm can offer at any particular point. Maximum profit is calculated, based on the cost inputs, production costs, marketing costs and other variables. Therefore, all these factors would ultimately determine the supply position a

Response Scenario Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Response Scenario Paper - Essay Example It is in this regard that this paper aims to formulate and detail a response plan to immediately address a chemical spill. Given a scenario where a toxic chemical spill occurs in a manufacturing company at day time, exposing the day shift composed of more than 1,000 people, this essay would detail a response plan to address this incident and detail plans to prevent future occurrence. At day time when more than 1,000 personnel work at a manufacturing company, a toxic chemical spill suddenly occurs. According to Pollution Issues (2007), â€Å"one of the most common concerns over chemical accidents and hazardous materials spills is acute, or short-term, toxicity. Acutely toxic contaminants, such as cyanide and chlorine released from hazardous materials spills, pose an immediate threat to public health. For example, a chemical accident in which chlorine gas or cyanide gas is released would likely result in widespread deaths as the plume, or toxic cloud, moved through a populated area. Another class of toxicity is chronic, or long term. One of the most common types of chronic toxicity is exposure to carcinogens that may result in cancer twenty to thirty years after the time of the spill.† (par. 11) The immediate response to this scenario would determine the number of lives that would be saved. In this regard, the following should be the response plan: observe and assess the nature of the spill, stop or contain the spill (if it is safe to do so); call for assistance (if needed); and cleanup using appropriate means. As given in the scenario, it is a toxic chemical spill. By toxic, it means â€Å"a material containing hazardous contaminants above the maximum allowable safe concentration is toxic. Examples include used photo fixer (toxic for silver), some used dry cell batteries (toxic for mercury), sludges and sometimes liquid from water-based parts washers (toxic for lead, benzene, or both) and automotive

Marketing & Sales for Dreamworld theme park Assignment

Marketing & Sales for Dreamworld theme park - Assignment Example The Australia-based wildlife experience offers guests with an opportunity of cuddling the koalas, feeding kangaroos and drawing near to the crocodiles along with the Tiger Island being home to two cougars, eight Sumatran tigers and Bengal tigers charged with the duty to entertain guests alongside the trainers. Moreover, the company includes entertainment facilities like the Australia Animal Facility which takes place on a day-to-day routine therein (James Cook University of North Queensland & National Centre for Studies in Travel & Tourism, 1990). Furthermore, the company organizes for annual events like New Year’s Eve amp for adults and the ultimate single’s day often scheduled for February 13th every year. For a while, brand has proved to be a crucial tool in Dreamworld. For the past 5-8 years, the company has embraced strategies aimed at associating the company with brands with different appeals and capable of remaining relevant event in middle of varied demographic segments. To this end, the company has remained committed to improving its attractions and growing further whilst keeping up with the state of being a top-edge draws within the big Gold Coast. From 1981, the company has been able to develop individualized customer experiences by integrating products and customer initiatives in order to benefit both local and international guests (Australian Tourism and Hospitality Research Conference& Australia, 1990). Besides, the company offers support to local cultures and communities by sponsoring and taking part in charity organizations. The two cases present opportunities that Dreamworld could use to channel promotional messages to its target clients in order to increase its customer base along with the revenue stream (Parsons, 2002). Also, the Company has more opportunities to improve its target customers. More specifically, the company should diversify its customer base to encompass

Interventions for Maternal and Child Health in Nepal Essay Example for Free

Interventions for Maternal and Child Health in Nepal Essay Macro- and micro-nutrient malnutrition is a major public health problem and a key factor in determining morbidity and mortality. Its underlying determinants include poverty, education, sanitation, climate, food production, cultural norms, and accessibility and quality of health care. Pregnant women and young children are particularly at risk owing to the extra nutritional demands of rapid growth. Malnutrition is the direct cause of approximately 300,000 deaths per year (Muller Krawinkel, 2005), and a contributing factor in over a third— 3.5 million—of all child deaths annually (Horton, 2008). These deaths are largely preventable. For infants, there is a â€Å"golden interval† for intervention from pregnancy to 2 years, during which improvements in nutritional status can have long-lasting benefits (Horton, 2008). Strong associations exist between maternal and child undernutrition and reduced adult economic productivity and other negative outcomes (Victoria et al., 2008). While Nepal has recently demonstrated progress toward improving general maternal and child health (MCH), there are still opportunities to further improve nutritional status of mothers and children. This paper examines and makes recommendations about interventions that have the potential to improve maternal and child nutritional status in Nepal. The interventions discussed in this paper address the underlying causes of nutrition-related maternal and child mortality and morbidity, as outlined by the UNICEF Conceptual framework for maternal and neonatal mortality and morbidity (UNICEF, 2008), and are organized based on the period of intervention, including antenatal care, delivery care, and post-partum and early childhood care. Antenatal care: Within the antenatal period of development, maternal supplementation has been one of the most studied interventions. Evidence is strongest in support of maternal supplementation of multiple micronutrients, calcium, and iron-folic acid. Given the staggering rates of micronutrient deficiencies among pregnant Nepali women and the low cost of supplementation, maternal supplementation of multiple micronutrients, calcium and iron-folic acid is highly recommended. These micronutrients have a range of benefits, including reduction of maternal anemia, maternal mortality, pre-eclampsia, hypertension, puerperal infection, and low birthweight (LBW). This paper also examines the evidence around maternal smoking cessation interventions because of the extraordinary potential for impact of such programs in a population where smoking rates among women are high and knowledge about negative outcomes associated with smoking is low and because maternal smoking cessation appears to have not been a focus of government and other programs in Nepal. However, there is a lack Executive Summary i of solid evidence to suggest that a particular intervention to reduce maternal smoking could be both effective and efficient in developing countries. Delivery care: This paper also examines interventions during delivery that can have an impact on nutritional status. Traditional birth attendants (TBAs) play a crucial role in decreasing nenonatal and maternal mortality during delivery. They also dispense advice regarding antenatal, perinatal, and postnatal care, including nutrition and diet, breastfeeding, and immunizations. One important aspect of training for TBAs, as well as other health professionals, is the promotion of delayed umbilical cord clamping. Due to the high rates of anemia and iron deficiency in children, delayed cord clamping is a critical intervention because it is a cost-effective way to improve hematologic status, increase blood volume, and decrease anemia in infancy. Post-partum and early childhood care: Finally, nutritional interventions in the post-partum and early childhood period can reduce childhood morbidity and mortality and ensure that children are developing in a healthy way. This section of the paper focuses on the promotion of breastfeeding, infant and child vitamin A supplementation and growth monitoring and promotion (GMP). There exists decades of research showing that breastfeeding is a highly effective strategy to reduce all-cause mortality, diarrheal morbidity and mortality, and the risk of gastrointestinal infections and respiratory infections. There is a wealth of empirical data supporting the promotion of breastfeeding in developed and developing countries alike. Vitamin A supplementation for infants and young children has already been successful in Nepal, and it should remain a priority there. Vitamin A supplementation is associated with reductions in night-blindness, Bitot’s spots, xerophthalmia, and severe morbidity and mortality from infectious diseases, and when given before certain immunizations, it can enhance the immune response to the immunizations, making them more effective. Also, the use of GMP, measuring and charting the growth of children and using this information to counsel parents to motivate behaviors that promote growth, provides a cost-effective opportunity to identify growth issues before severe malnutrition manifests. For summary information on recommended interventions, refer to the one-page briefs after this Executive Summary. The interventions examined in this paper collectively have an enormous potential for impact in Nepal. At the same time, it is important to consider some of the challenges and feasibility concerns that these interventions may face. These may Executive Summary include: access to and utilization of antenatal care and other health services; the status of the health system infrastructure; financial resource availability, and cultural considerations. Also, while these recommended interventions can be successful in addressing the underlying causes of malnutrition-related morbidity and mortality, long-term solutions for improving maternal and child nutritional status must address the basic causes, such as political, economic and social conditions. While challenges and other considerations exist, the interventions recommended have the potential to make a real and lasting impact in Nepal by reducing the burden of nutrition-related morbidity and mortality. These interventions are cost-effective tools that should be central to any plan to create a bright and healthy future generation in Nepal.

Ethics and Philosophy of Social Research Essay Example for Free

Ethics and Philosophy of Social Research Essay The social research shares with all scientific endeavours the necessity to balance scientific zeal with other ethical values that derive from the social context in which all social research takes place. To some degree, the research ideal of objectivity unavoidably conflicts with humanistic values. Therefore, all researchers must at some time come to grips with this conflict. The issue, however, is especially crucial for social researchers because the focus of their research is the behaviour of other people. Thus, not only the goals of the social research but the very process of data collection is subject to ethical conflicts. The paper contains analysis—the synthesis of research results across a large number of studies—and on the social responsibility and ethical requirements of the social research. The ethical issues which researchers face in their day-to-day study are comparatively consistent across methods. The ethical principles adopted by researchers should govern their actions, whether they take place in field or laboratory environment. To make this point most strongly, this paper contains a separate section, which should serve as a strong point of reference for the social researcher, rather than providing a series of ethical requirements that are spread thinly throughout the various sections of this paper. These issues include the social and ethical responsibilities and constraints connected with the conduct of social research and advancing the cumulative progress of behavioral and social science through integrating and synthesizing findings from different current investigations. The paper hopes to make clear that social research is a collective enterprise undertaken in the context of ethical values. Main body Ethics in Social Research Ethics of Research Design and Methodology Because the subject matter of the social researcher is human behaviour and the processes that are associated with behaviour, it is unavoidable that researcher interests will conflict sometimes with ethical values placed on the rights of people to privacy and self-determination. The guidelines for social research ethics set by the Social Research Association (SRA) (2003) stress the idea of recruiting participants for research on the basis of informed consent —this means that participation must be freewill and with the participants full knowledge of what research will include. However, it is declared that many subjects could not be researched at all if this ideal were entirely met, and that the rights of individuals must be weighed against the possible importance of the research problem. David De Vaus (1996), for example, demonstrated in a verbal conditioning experiment that a full explanation of methods and hypotheses destroyed the phenomenon they were attempting to examine. In cases where full explanation of subject cannot be presented, SRA recommends that â€Å"But there should, at least, be clarity about opt-in and opt-out arrangements, about the length and degree of commitment required of respondents, and about the precise goals of the research. Adequate subject de-briefing also seems essential to this last aim.† Thus, the ethical code does not present free from limitations standards that relieve the researcher of important value judgments. Rather, judgments as to the comparative significance of research programmes and researchers responsibility for the well-being of their participants are the primary bases of research ethics. Deception in the Laboratory The degree to which participation is entirely voluntary is in many cases disputable, depending on the social and institutional pressures to take part in research that are at times involved. But usually, participants in laboratory experiments at least know that they participate in a research study. Notwithstanding, however, the information provided to participants in laboratory investigations is usually smallest, at best, and often purposely deceptive as to the goals of the research study. To what degree this deception is justified by serving scientific purposes and the potential benefit to human welfare is a matter of considerable debate. Some critics claim that no deception is ever reasonable and that it should not be permitted in the interests of social research (Ortmann Hertwig 746-747). Most social researchers, however, take a more temperate view, considering that there is an unavoidable compromise between values of entire honesty and informed consent and the possible value of what can be learned from the research itself. Just as the unimportant lie uttered in the interests of tact or politeness is regarded as acceptable when used in the service of good manners, so a little amount of deception may be acceptable in the service of obtaining reliable research data. However, there is also some controversy over whether social researchers have exceeded this adequate minimum in their research (Barnes 320). For some years the practice of deception in laboratory experiments was considered acceptable by most experimenters. However, an article by Herbert Kelman (1967) reflected a growing concern with accepted among many people, and evidently undisputed, use of deception in social research. Kelmans article argued this practice on both ethical and practical grounds. Ethically, he claimed, any deception disregarded essential norms of respect in the interpersonal relationship that forms between researcher and research participant. Besides, the practice might have extreme methodological implications as participants become less naive and extreme suspiciousness begins to have an effect upon the outcomes of all research. To avoid these problems, Kelman advised that social researchers (a) reduce the unnecessary use of deception, (b) explore ways of counteracting or minimizing its negative consequences when deemed necessary, and (c) develop new methods, such as role playing or simulation techniques, which substitute active participation for deception (Kelman 10-11). Practices of experimenting with these alternative methodologies have been tried, but the results are consisting of conflicting thoughts, at best (Crespi 23). Thus, the general agreement in the social research is that some level of deception is often necessary to produce realistic conditions for testing research hypotheses. However, such deception needs to be justified by the nature and significance of the research question being studied. As James D. Faubion (2005) put it, â€Å"The social researcher whose study may have a good chance of reducing violence or racism or sexism, but who declines to do the study simply because it requires deception, has not solved an ethical problem but only traded one for another† (860). Ethical Issues in Field Research Although much of the discussion about the ethical implications of deception concentrates on laboratory experimentation, study conducted outside the laboratory often considers a number of other ethical issues and concerns. Besides issues associated with consent to participate, researchers also must think over issues of privacy and confidentiality when research data are collected in field surroundings (Boruch 102). Because a main benefit of field research, from a scientific point of view, is the chance of obtaining samples of behaviour under naturally occurring circumstances, it often is beneficial to conduct such research under conditions in which the nature of the research is concealed. Therefore, the participants may not only be mislead regarding the goals of the research, but may even be uninformed that they are the subject of research in the first place. The use of â€Å"frugal† measures highlights this strategy (Ortlieb 2002), but even more traditional methods of data collection, such as the interview or questionnaire, are often conducted in such a manner as to conceal their true goal. Some researchers consider the practice of concealed observation or response elicitation as passable as long as it is limited to in fundamental way â€Å"public† behaviors or settings usually open to public examination. Adam Ashforth (1996), for example, presented a review of settings and behaviours for which concealed research methods have been used. However, there is the question of subjective definitions of what form â€Å"public† behaviours, specifically in urban settings where social norms lead to the probability of anonymity in public surroundings. Because by definition field research includes some act of intervening on the part of the researcher in the stimulus conditions to which the uninformed participants are exposed, ethical question about hidden observation is further difficult to understand because of concern over the nature of such manipulations. Instances of practice of experimenting in field settings comprise systematic variation of the content of applicant briefs sent to potential employers (Ashforth 1996), differential behaviour on the part of salesmen regarding customers (Fairclough 2003) or customers toward salesmen (Fairclough 2003). To some degree these all fall within a â€Å"normal range† of human behaviour in public surroundings, the only difference being their methodical manipulation by the researcher. Yet, collecting data about individual behaviour in these cases evidently violates the spirit of â€Å"informed consent, † in particular when researchers conclude it is best not to inform individuals which have been observed even after the fact (Seiber 268). The Regulatory Context of Research Involving Human Participants The preceding discussion of ethical dilemmas is contemplated to present the idea that there are no easy, certain rules for deciding whether a specific research strategy or method is ethical or not. Rather, difficult enough to construct opinion is involved in weighing the possible value of the research against potential stress or other costs to research participants. Ethical decision making includes a cost—benefit analysis rather than the consideration of certain strictures and rules (Alvaro Crano 13). Much of the responsibility for decision making falls on the individual researcher, but one person alone is not always the best judge of what is of considerable importance and necessary research and what is possibly harmful to participants. Actually, there is good evidence that biases enter into scientists evaluations of the quality of their own research (Kimmel 1991). Therefore, the conduct of social research that meets reasonable ethical standards and methods is not just a matter of persons judgment, it is the law. Almost all social research that is supported by funds or conducted in educational or research institutions that receive funding (of any kind) is subject to regulations concerning the conduct of social research. The primary agency is The Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC) which is the UKs leading research funding and training agency addressing economic and social concerns. ESRC provides certain principles for protecting the welfare and dignity of human participants in research and provides policies and procedures that are required of institutions in which such research is conducted. The ESRC expects that the research it supports will be conducted according to a high ethical standard. This Research Ethics Framework (REF) sets out good ethical practice in UK social research.Although REF is a mandatory aspect of social research which involves human participants, it does not absolve the researcher from any further responsibility for the ethical conduct of his or her research.

Analysis of C Language and Operators

Analysis of C Language and Operators Introduction In order to perform different kinds of operations, C uses different kinds of operators. An operator indicates an operation to be performed on data that yields a value. Using various operators in C one link the variables and constants. An operand is a data item on which operators perform the operations. C is rich in the use of different operators. C provides four classes of operators. They are 1) Arithmetic 2) Relational 3) Logical 4) Bitwise. Apart from these basic operators, C also supports additional operators. 3.1 Types of operators Type of Operator Symbolic Representation Arithmetic operators + , -, *, / and % Relational operators >,=. Logical operators , II and ! Increment and decrement operator ++ and Assignment operator = Bitwise operators ,I,, », «and Comma operator , Conditional operator ? : 3.2 PRIORITY OF OPERATORS AND THEIR CLUBBING Various relational operators have different priorities or precedence. If an arithmetic expression contains more operators then the execution will be performed according to their priorities. The precedence is set for different operators in C. List of operators with priority wise (hierarchical) are shown in Table 3.2. Table 3.2 List of operators with priority wise Operators Operation Clubbing Priority ( ) [ ] -> . Function call Array expression or square bracket Structure Operator Structure Operator Left to right 1st + ++ ! ~ * Sizeof type Unary plus Unary minus Increment Decrement Not operator Ones complement Pointer Operator Address operator Size of an object Type cast Right to Left 2nd * / % Multiplication Division Modular division Left to Right 3rd + Addition Subtraction Left to Right 4th >> Left shift Right Shift Left to Right 5th > >= Less than Less than or equal to Greater than Greater than or equal to Left to Right 6th == != Equality Inequality Left to Right 7th Bitwise AND Left to Right 8th ^ Bitwise XOR Left to Right 9th | Bitwise OR Left to Right 10th Logical AND Left to Right 11th || Logical OR Left to Right 12th ? : Conditional operator Right to Left 13th =,*=,-=, =,+=,^=, |=,>= Assignment operator Right to Left 14th , Comma operator Left to Right 15th 1) When two operators of the same priority are found in the expression, precedence is given to the extreme left operator. Example Example Example 3.3 COMMA AND CONDITIONAL OPERATOR 1) Comma operator (,) The comma operator is used to separate two or more expressions. The comma operator has the lowest priority among all the operators. It is not essential to enclose the expressions with comma operators within the parenthesis. For example the statements given below are valid. Example 2) Conditional operator (?) The conditional operator contains a condition followed by two statements or values. If the condition is true the first statement is executed otherwise the second statement. The conditional operator (?) and (:) are sometimes called ternary operators because they take three arguments. The syntax of conditional operator is as given below. Syntax Condition? (expression1): (expression2); Two expressions are separated by a colon. If the condition is true expression1 gets evaluated otherwise expression 2. The condition is always written before? Mark. Example Example 3.4 ARITHMETIC OPERATORS There are two types of arithmetic operators. They are 1) Binary Operator and 2) Unary Operator a) Binary operator Table 3.3 shows different arithmetic operators that are used in C. These operators are commonly used in most of the computer languages. These arithmetic operators are used for numerical calculations between the two constant values. They are also called as Binary Arithmetic Operators. The examples are also shown in the Table 3.3 In the program variables are declared instead of constants. Table 3.3 Arithmetic operators Arithmetic Operators Operator Explanation Examples + Addition 2+2=4 Subtraction 5-3=2 * Multiplication 2*5=10 / Division 10/2=5 % Modular Division 11%3=2 (Remainder 2) b) Unary Operators Unary operators are increment operator (++), decrement (- -) and minus (-) . These operators and their descriptions are given in the Table 3.4. Table 3.4 Unary arithmetic operators Operator Description or Action Minus ++ Increment Decrement Address Operator Size of Gives the size of variable a) Minus (-) Unary minus is used to indicate or change the algebraic sign of a value. b) Increment (++) Decrement () Operators The C compilers produce very fast efficient object codes for increment and decrement operations. This code is better than generated by using the equivalent assignment statement. So, increment and decrement operators should be used whenever possible. †¢ The operator ++ adds one to its operand. Whereas the operator subtracts one from its operand. For justification x=x+1 can be written as x++; and x=x-1; can be written as x;. Both these operators may either follow or precede the operand. That is, x=x+ 1; can be represented as x++; 01 ++x; If ++ or are used as a suffix to the variables name then the post increased / decreased operations take place. Consider an example for understanding ++ operator as a suffix to the variable. x=20; y=10; z=x*y++; In the above equation the current value of y is used for the product. The result is 200, which is assigned to z. After multiplication, the value of y is increased by one. If â€Å"++ or -â€Å"are used as a prefix to the variable name then pre increment/ decrement operations take place. Consider an example for understanding ++ operator as a prefix to the variable. x=20; y=10; z=x*++y; In the above equation the value of y is increased and then used for multiplication. The result is 220, which is assigned to z. The following programs can be executed for verification of increment and decrement operations. Example 3.4 Example 3.5 c) Size of 0 and Operator The size of ( ) operator gives the bytes occupied by a variable. The number of bytes occupied varies from variable to variable depending upon its dab types. The operator prints address of the variable in the memory. The example given below illustrates the use of both the operators. Example 3.6 3.5 RELATIONAL OPERATORS These operators are used to distinguish between two values depending on their relations. These operators provide the relationship between the two expressions. If the relation is true then it returns a value 1 otherwise 0 for false relation. The relational operators together with their descriptions, example and return value are described in Table 3.5. Table 3.5 Relational Operator Operators Description or Action Example Return Value > Greater than 5>4 1 >= Greater than equal to 11>=5 1 = = Equal to 2==3 0 ! = Not equal to 3!=3 0 The relational operators symbols are easy to understand. They are self-explanatory. However readers benefit a program is illustrated below. Example 3.7 Example 3.8 Example 3.9 Example 3.10 3.6 LOGICAL OPERATORS The logical relationship between the two expressions are checked with logical operators. Using these operators two expressions can be joined. After checking the conditions it provides logical true (1) or false (0) status. The operands could be constants, variables, and expressions. The Table 3.6 describes the three logical operators together with examples and their return values. Table 3.6 Logical Operators Operator Description or Action Example Return Value Logical AND 5>3 5 || Logical OR 8>5 || 8 ! Logical NOT 8 ! = 8 0 From the above table following rules can be followed for logical operators. 1) The logical AND ( ) operator provides true result when both expressions are true otherwise 0. 2) The logical OR (I I) operator provides true result when one of the expressions is true otherwise 0. 3) The logical NOT operator (!) provides 0 if the condition is true otherwise 1. Example 3.11 Example 3.12 Example 3.13 Example 3.14 Example 3.15 Example 3.16 3.7 BITWISE OPERATORS C supports a set of bitwise operators as listed in the Table 3.7. C supports six bit operators. These operators can operate only on integer operands such as int, char, short, long int etc. Table 3.7 Bitwise operators Operator Meaning >> Right shift ^ Bitwise xor (Exclusive OR) ~ Ones complement Bitwise AND | Bitwise OR Example 3.17 Example 3.18 Example 3.19 Example 3.20 Example 3.21 SUMMARY You have now studied the various operators such as arithmetic, logical and relational which are essential to write and execute programs. The precedence of the operators in the arithmetic operations furnished in the form of a table. The conditional comma operators and programs on them, also described in this chapter. You are made aware of the logical operators OR, AND and NOT. Full descriptions on bit wise operators have been illustrated. Numerous Simple examples have been provided to the users to understand the various operators. The reader is expected to write more programs on this chapter. EXCERSICES Answer the following questions. 1. Explain different types of operators available in C? 2. What are the uses of comma (,) and conditional (?) operators? 3. What are Unary operators and their uses? 4. Describe logical operators with their return values? 5. Distinguish between logical and bitwise operators. 6. What are the relational operators? 7. What is the difference between = and = = ‘? 8. What are the symbols used for a) OR b) AND c) XOR d) NOT operations? 9. Explain the precedence of operators in arithmetic operations? 10. List the operators from higher priority to least priority? 11. What is the difference between %f and %g? 12. What is the difference between division and modular division operations? 13. What are the ASCII codes? List the codes for digits 1 to 9, A to Z and a to z. We have already seen that individual constants, variables, array elements and function references joined together by various operators to form expressions. We have also mentioned that C includes a number of operators which fall into several different categories. In this chapter we examine certain of categories in detail. Specifically, we will see how arithmetic operators, unary operators, relational and logical operators, assignment operators and the conditional operator are used to form expressions. The data items that operators act upon are called operands. Some operators require two operands, while others act upon only one operand. Most operators allow the individual operands to be expressions. A few operator permit only single variables as operands (more about this later). 3.1 ARITHMETIC OPERATORS There are five arithmetic operators in C. They are Operator Purpose + addition subtraction * multiplication / division % remainder after integer division The %operator is sometimes referred to as the modulus operator. There is no exponentiation operator in C. However, there is a library function (pow) to carry out exponentiation (see Sec.3.6). The operands acted upon by arithmetic operators must represent numeric values. Thus, the operands can be integer quantities, floating-point quantities or characters (remember -that character constants represent integer values, as determined by the computers character set). The remainder operator (%) requires that both operands be integers and the second operand be nonzero. Similarly, the division operator (I) requires that the second operand be nonzero. Division of one integer quantity by another is referred to as integer division. This operation always results in a truncated quotient (i.e., the decimal portion of the quotient will be dropped). On the other hand if a division operation is carried out with two floating-point numbers, or with one floating-point number and one integer, the result will be a floating-point quotient. EXAMPLE 3.1 EXAMPLE 3.2 EXAMPLE 3.3 Operands that differ in type may undergo type conversion before the expression takes on its final value. In general, the final result will be expressed in the highest precision possible, consistent with the data types of the operands. The following rules apply when neither / operand is unsigned. 1. If both operands are floating-point types whose precisions differ (e.g., a float and a double), the lower precision operand will be converted to the precision of the other operand, and the result will be expressed in this higher precision. Thus, an operation between a float and a double will result in a double; a float and a long double will result in a long double; and a double and a long double will result in a long double. (Note: In some versions of C, all operands of type float are automatically converted to double.) 2. If one operand is a floating-point type (e.g., float, double or long double) and the other is a char or an int (including short int or long int), the char or int will be converted to the floating-point type and the result will be expressed as such. Hence, an operation between an int and a double will result in a double. 3. If neither operand is a floating-point type but one is a long int, the other will be converted to long int and the result will be long into Thus, an operation between a long int and an int will result in a long int. 4. If neither operand is a floating-point type or a long int, then both operands will be converted to int (if necessary) and the result will be into Thus, an operation between a short int and an int will result in an int. A detailed summary of these rules is given in Appendix D. Conversions involving unsigned operands are also explained in Appendix D. EXAMPLE 3.4 EXAMPLE 3.5 EXAMPLE 3.6 EXAMPLE 3.7 EXAMPLE 3.8 EXAMPLE 3.9 3.2 UNARY OPERATORS C includes a class of operators that act upon a single operand to produce a new value. Such operators are known as unary operators. Unary operators usually precede their single operands, though some unary operators are written after their operands. Perhaps the most common unary operation is unary minus, where a numerical constant, variable or expression is preceded by a minus sign. (Some programming languages allow a minus sign to be included as a part of a numeric constant. In C, however, all numeric constants are positive. Thus, a negative number is actually an expression, consisting of the unary minus operator, followed by a positive numeric constant.) Note that the unary minus operation is distinctly different from the arithmetic operator which denotes subtraction (-). The subtraction operator requires two separate-operands. 3.3 RELATIONALAND LOGICAL OPERATORS There are four relational operators in C. They are Operator Meaning > greater than >= greater than or equal to These operators all fall within the same precedence group, which is lower than the arithmetic and unary operators. The associatively of these operators is left to right. Closely associated with the relational operators are the following two equality operators. Operator Meaning == equal to != not equal to The equality operators fall into a separate precedence group, beneath the relational operators. These operators also have a left-to-right associatively. These six operators are used to form logical expressions, which represent conditions that are either true or false. The resulting expressions will be of type integer, since true is represented by the integer value 1 and false is represented by the value 0. EXAMPLE 3.15 EXAMPLE 3.16 EXAMPLE 3.17 EXAMPLE 3.18 EXAMPLE 3.19 EXAMPLE 3.20 3.4 ASSIGNMENT OPERATORS There are several different assignment operators in C. All of them are used to form assignment .expressions which assign the value of an expression to an identifier. The most commonly used assignment operator is = Assignment expressions that make use of this operator are written in the form identifier = expression where identifier generally represents a variable, and expression represents a constant, a variable or a more complex expression. EXAMPLE 3.21 Remember that the assignment operator = and the equality operator == are distinctly different. The assignment operator is used to assign a value to an identifier, whereas the equality operator is used to determine if two expressions have the same value. These operators cannot be used in place of one another. Beginning programmers often incorrectly use the assignment operator when they want to test for equality. This results in a logical error that is usually difficult to detect. Assignment expressions are often referred to as assignment statements, since they are usually written as complete statements. However, assignment expressions can also be written as expressions that are included within other statements (more about this in later chapters). If the two operands in an assignment expression are of different data types, then the value of the expression on the right (i.e., the right-hand operand) will automatically be converted to the type of the identifier on the left. The entire assignment expression will then be of this same data type. Under some circumstances this automatic type conversion can result in an alteration of the data being assigned. For example: A floating-point value may be truncated if assigned to an integer identifier. A double-precision value may be rounded if assigned to a floating-point (single-precision) identifier. An integer quantity may be altered if assigned to a shorter integer identifier or to a character identifier (some high-order bits may be lost). Moreover the value of a character constant assigned to a numeric-type identifier will be dependent upon the particular character set in use. This may result in inconsistencies from one version of C to another. The careless use of type conversions is a frequent source of error among beginning programmers. EXAMPLE 3.22 EXAMPLE 3.23 EXAMPLE 3.24 EXAMPLE 3.25 THE CONDITIONAL OPERATOR Simple conditional operations can be carried out with the conditional operator (? :). An expression that makes use of the conditional operator is called a conditional expression. Such an expression can be written in place of the more traditional if -else statement, which is discussed in Chap.6. A condition expression is written in the form expression 1 ? expression 2 : expression 3 When evaluating a conditional expression, expression 1 is evaluated first. If expression 1 is true (i.e., if, its value is nonzero), then expression 2 is evaluated and this becomes the value of the conditional expression. However, if expression 1 is false (i.e., if its value is zero),then expression 3 is evaluated and this becomes the value of the conditional expression. Note that only one of the embedded expressions (either expression 2 or expression 3) is evaluated when determining the value of a conditional expression. EXAMPLE 3.26 EXAMPLE 3.27 EXAMPLE 3.28 EXAMPLE 3.29 LIBRARY FUNCTIONS The C language is accompanied by a number of library functions that carry out various commonly used operations or calculations. These library functions are not a part of the language per se, though all implementations of the language include them. Some functions return a data item to their access point; others indicate whether a condition is true or false by returning a 1 or a 0, respectively; still others carry out specific operations on data items but do not return anything. Features which tend to be computer-dependent are generally written as library functions. For example, there are library functions that carry out standard input/output operations (e.g., read and write characters, read and write numbers, open and close files, test for end of file, etc.), functions that perform operations on characters (e.g., convert from lower- to uppercase, test to see if a character is uppercase, etc.), and function that perform operations on strings (e.g., copy a string, compare strings, concatenate strings, etc.), and functions that carry out various mathematical calculations (e.g., evaluate trigonometric, logarithmic and exponential functions, compute absolute values, square roots, etc.). Other kinds of library functions are also available. Library functions that are functionally similar are usually grouped together as (compiled) object programs in separate library files. These library files are supplied as a part of each C compiler. All C compilers contain similar groups of library functions, though they lack precise standardization. Thus there may be some variation in the library functions that are available in different versions of the language. A typical set of library functions will include a fairly large number of functions that are common to most C compilers such as those shown in Table 3-2 below. Within this table, the column labeled type refers to the data type of the quantity that is returned by the function. The void entry shown for function srand indicates that nothing is returned by this function. A more extensive list, which includes all of the library functions that appear in the programming examples presented in this book, is shown in Appendix H. For complete list, see the programmers reference manual that accompanies your particular version of C. A library function is accessed simply by writing the function name, followed by a list of arguments that represent information being passed to the function. The arguments must be enclosed in parentheses and separated by commas. The arguments can be constants, variable names, or more complex expressions. The parentheses must be present, even if there are no arguments. A function that returns a data item can appear anywhere within an expression, in place of a constant or an identifier(i.e., in place of a variable or an array element). A function that carries out operations on data items but does not return anything can be accessed simply by writing the function name, since this type of function reference constitutes an expression statement. Table 3-2 Some Commonly Used Library Functions Function Type Purpose abs(i) Int Return the absolute value of i. ceil(d) double Round up to the next integer value (the smallest integer that is greater than or equal to d). cos(d) double Return the cosine of d. cosh (d) double Return the hyperbolic cosine of d. exp (d) double Raise e to the power d (e =2.7182818. .. is the base of the natural (Naperian) system of logarithms). fabs (d) double Return the absolute value of d. floor (d) double Round down to the next integer value (the largest integer that does not exceed d). fmod (d1,d2) double Return the remainder (i.e., the noninteger part of the quotient) of d1/d2, with same sign as d1. getchar () int Enter a character from the standard input device. log (d) double Return the natural logarithm of d. pow (d1,d2) double Return d1 raised to the d2 power. printf(†¦) int Send data items to the standard output device (arguments are complicated see Chap. 4). pitcher  © int Send a character to the standard output device rand ( ) int Return a random positiv e integer. sin (d) double Return the sine of d. sqrt (d) double Return the square root of d. srand (u) void Initialize the random number generator. scanf(†¦) int Enter data items from the standard input device (arguments are complicated see Chap. 4). tan (d) double Return the tangent of d. toascii  © int Convert value of argument to ASCII. tolower  © int Convert letter to lowercase toupper  © int Convert letter to uppercase. Note: Type refers to the data type of the quantity that is returned by the function. c denotes a character-type argument i denotes an integer argument d denotes a double-precision argument u denotes an unsigned integer argument EXAMPLE 3.30 EXAMPLE 3.31 Review Questions 1. What is an expression? What are its components? 2. What is an operator? Describe several different types of operators that are included in C. 3. What is an operand? What is the relationship between operators and operands? 4. Describe the five arithmetic operators in C. Summarize the rules associated with their use. 5. Summarize the rules that apply to expressions whose operands are of different types. 6. How can the value of an expression be converted to a different data type? What is this called? 7. What is meant by operator precedence? What are the relative precedence’s of the arithmetic operators? 8. What is meant by associativity? What is the associativity of the arithmetic operators? 9. When should parentheses be included within an expression? When should the use of parentheses be avoided. 10. In what order are the operations carried out within an expression that contains nested parentheses? 11. What are unary operators? How many operands are associated with a unary op erator? 12. Describe the six unary operators discussed in this chapter. What is the purpose of each? 13. Describe two different ways to utilize the increment and decrement operators. How do the two method differ? 14. What is the relative precedence of the unary operators compared with the arithmetic operators? What is their associativity? 15. How can the number of bytes allocated to each data type be determined for a particular C compiler? 16. Describe the four relational operators included in C. With what type of operands can they be used? What type of expression is obtained? 17. Describe the two equality operators included in C. How do they differ from the relational operators? 18. Describe the two logical operators included in C. What is the purpose of each? With what type of operands can they be used? What type of expression is obtained? 19. What are the relative precedence’s of the relational, equality and logical operators with respect to one another and with respect to the arithmetic and unary operators? What are their associativities? 20. Describe the logical not (logical negation) operator. What is its purpose? Within which precedence group is it included? How many operands does it require? What is its associativity? 21. Describe the six assignment operators discussed in this chapter. What is the purpose of each? 22. How is the type of an assignment expression determined when the two operands are of different data types? In what sense is this situation sometimes a source of programming errors? 23. How can multiple assignments be written in C? In what order will the assignments be carried out? 24. What is the precedence of assignment operators relative to other operators? What is their associativity? 25. Describe the use of the conditional operator to form conditional expressions. How is a conditional expression evaluated? 26. How is the type of a conditional expression determined when its operands differ in type? 27. How can the conditional op erator be combined with the assignment operator to form an if -else type statement? 28. What is the precedence of the conditional operator relative to the other operators described in this chapter? What is its associativity? 29. Describe, in general terms, the kinds of operations and calculations that are carried out by the C library functions. 30. Are the library functions actually a part of the C language? Explain. 31. How are the library functions usually packaged within a C compiler? 32. How are library functions accessed? How is information passed to a library function from the access point? 33. What are arguments? How are arguments written? How is a call to a library function written if there are no arguments? 34. How is specific information that may be required by the library functions stored? How is this information entered into a C program? 35. In what general category do the #define and #include statements fall? INTRODUCTION C supports a rich set of operators. We have already used several of them, such as =, +. -, *, and, C operators can be classified into a number of categories. They include: 1. Arithmetic operators. 2. Relational operators. 3. Logical operators. 4. Assignment operators. 5. Incrementand decrement operators. 6. Conditional operators. 7. Bitwiseoperators. 8. Speciaolperators. 3.2 ARITHMETIC OPERATORS C provides all the basic arithmetic operators. They are listed in Table 3.1. The operators +, -, * and I all work the same way as they do in other languages. These can operate on any built-in data type allowed in C. The unary minus operator, in effect, multiplies its single operand by -1. Therefore, a number preceded by a minus sign changes its sign. Table 3.1 Arithmetic Operators Operator Meaning + Addition or unary plus Subtraction or unary minus * Multiplication / Division % Modulo division Integer division truncates any fractional part. The modulo division produces the remainder of an integer division. Examples of arithmetic operators are: a – b a + b a * b a / b a % b -a * b Here a and b are variables and are known as operands. The modulo division operator % cannot be used on floating point data. Note that C does not have an operator for exponentiation. Older versions of C does not support unary plus but ANSI C supports it. Integer Arithmetic When both the operands in a single arithmetic expression such as a+b are integers, the expression is called an integer expression, and the operation is called integer arithmetic. Integer arithmetical ways yields an integer value. The largest integer value depends on the machine, as pointed out earlier. In the above examples, if a and b are integers, then for a = 14 and b = 4 we have the following results: a b = 10 a + b = 18 a*b=56 a / b = 3 (decimal part truncated) a % b = 2 (remainder of division) During integer division, if both the operands are of the same sign, the result is truncated towards zero. If one of them is negative, the direction of truncation is implementation dependent. That is, 6/7 = 0 and -6/-7 = 0 but -6/7 may be zero or -1. (Machine dependent) Similarly, during modulo division, the sign of the result is always the sign of the first operand (the dividend.) That is -14 % 3 = -2 -14 % -3 = -2 14 % -3 = 2 EXAMPLE 3.1 Real Arithmetic An arithmetic operation involving only real operands is called eal arithmetic. A real operand may assume values either in decimal or exponential notation. Since floating point values are rou

Imagery and Metaphor in Wilfred Owens Dulce et Decorum Est :: Dulce et Decorum Est Essays

Imagery and Metaphor in Wilfred Owen's Dulce et Decorum Est  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The poem is one of the most powerful ways to convey an idea or opinion.   Through vivid imagery and compelling metaphors, the poem gives the reader the exact feeling the author wanted.   The poem "Dulce et Decorum Est," an anti-war poem by Wilfred Owen, makes great use of these devices.   This poem is very effective because of its excellent manipulation of the mechanical and emotional parts of poetry.   Owen's use of exact diction and vivid figurative language emphasizes his point, showing that war is terrible and devastating. Furthermore, the utilization of extremely graphic imagery adds even more to his argument.   Through the effective use of all three of these tools, this poem conveys a strong meaning and persuasive argument.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The poem's use of excellent diction helps to more clearly define what the author is saying.   Words like "guttering", "choking", and "drowning" not only show how the man is suffering, but that he is in terrible pain that no human being should endure.   Other words like writhing and froth-corrupted say precisely how the man is being tormented.   Moreover, the phrase "blood shod" shows how the troops have been on their feet for days, never resting.   Also, the fact that the gassed man was "flung" into the wagon reveals the urgency and occupation with fighting. The only thing they can do is toss him into a wagon.   The fact one word   can add to the meaning so much shows how the diction of this poem adds greatly to its effectiveness.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Likewise, the use of figurative language in this poem also helps to emphasize the points that are being made.   As Perrine says, people use metaphors because they say "...what   we want to say more vividly and forcefully..."   Owen capitalizes greatly on this by using strong metaphors and similes.   Right off in the first line, he describes the troops as being "like old beggars under sacks."   This not only says that they are tired, but that they are so tired they have been brought down to the level of beggars who have not slept in a bed for weeks on end.   Owen also compares the victim's face to the devil, seeming corrupted and baneful.   A metaphor even more effective is one that compares "...vile, incurable sores..." with the memories of the troops.   It not only tells the reader how the troops will never forget the experience, but also how they are frightening tales, ones that will the troops will never be able to tell without remember ing the extremely painful experience.